Preface	6
	Contents	8
	Contributors	11
	402 The Behavioral Neuroscience of Motivation: An Overview of Concepts, Measures, and Translational Applications	15
	Abstract	15
	1 Why Motivation Is Important to Understand	16
	2 What We Mean by the Word Motivation	17
	3 A Simplified Overview of How Motivation Might Work in the Brain	18
	4 Cost–Benefit Computation as the Arbiter of Motivated Behavior	19
	5 Research Approaches to Understanding Motivation	21
	6 Organismal Level Biology Is Critical to Understanding Motivation	22
	7 Motivation Gone Wrong	22
	8 Treatments	24
	References	25
	The Neurobiology of Components of Motivational Drive	27
	381 Regulation of the Motivation to Eat	28
	Abstract	28
	1 Motivation	29
	2 Eating	31
	3 Homeostatic Versus Non-homeostatic Eating	34
	4 Homeostatic Influences	36
	5 Non-homeostatic Influences over the Motivation to Eat	39
	6 Integration of Homeostatic and Non-homeostatic Influences over Food Intake	40
	7 Summary	41
	References	42
	392 Sexual Motivation in the Female and Its Opposition by Stress	48
	Abstract	48
	1 Logic of Motivation	49
	2 Sexual Mechanisms	49
	3 Comparing Sex and Stress	51
	4 Stress Mechanisms	52
	5 Stress Impact upon Reproductive Behaviors in Females	53
	6 Open Questions from the Works Referred To	57
	7 Useful Research Topics for the Future	57
	References	59
	390 Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and the Motivational Forces that Drive Social Behaviors	63
	Abstract	63
	1 Overview	64
	2 Origins and Mechanisms of Motivated Social Behaviors	65
	2.1 Cooperative and Competitive Behaviors	66
	2.2 Brain Areas that Regulate Cooperative and Competitive Behaviors	68
	3 Neuroendocrine Modulation of Social Behaviors	70
	3.1 The Oxytocin System	70
	3.2 The Vasopressin System	71
	3.3 Signaling by Oxytocin and Vasopressin in the Brain	72
	3.4 Epigenetics	74
	4 Oxytocin/Vasopressin and Cooperative and Competitive Behaviors: Social Memory, Social Interactions, and Aggression	75
	4.1 Social Recognition Memory	75
	4.2 Cooperative Behavior	77
	4.3 Competitive Behavior	79
	4.3.1 Oxytocin and Competitive Behavior	79
	4.3.2 Vasopressin and Competitive Behavior	81
	4.3.3 The Vasopressin 1a Receptor and Competitive Behavior	81
	4.3.4 The Vasopressin 1A Receptor and Maternal Aggression	83
	4.3.5 The Vasopressin 1b Receptor and Competitive Behavior	84
	4.4 Social Communication	85
	4.5 Interactions Between Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and Dopamine in the Regulation of Cooperation/Competition	86
	5 Cooperativity and Competitiveness in Humans	87
	5.1 Nonapeptides and Social Cognition in Healthy Humans	88
	5.1.1 Oxytocin and Social Cognition in Humans	88
	5.1.2 Vasopressin and Social Cognition in Humans	90
	5.2 Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and the Mesolimbic Dopamine System	90
	6 Implications for Neuropsychiatric Disorders	91
	6.1 Autism Spectrum Disorder	91
	6.2 Personality Disorder	92
	6.3 Schizophrenia	93
	6.4 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder	94
	7 Conclusions and Future Directions	95
	References	96
	387 Roles of “Wanting” and “Liking” in Motivating Behavior: Gambling, Food, and Drug Addictions	116
	Abstract	116
	1 Introduction	117
	2 “Liking” and “Wanting”	117
	3 Drug Addiction	123
	3.1 Evidence for the Incentive Sensitization Theory	126
	3.2 The Role of “Liking,” and Alternate Hypotheses of Addiction	128
	4 Gambling	130
	5 Food Addiction	134
	6 Concluding Remarks	138
	References	138
	384 Circadian Insights into Motivated Behavior	148
	Abstract	148
	1 Circadian Considerations for Motivated Behaviors	150
	1.1 Goal-Directed and Arousal Aspects of Motivation	150
	1.2 Circadian Rhythms Impact Goal-Directed Motivation	151
	1.3 Circadian Rhythms Impact Arousal Components of Motivation	152
	1.4 Distinguishing Circadian Arousal and Goal-Directed Components of Behavior	153
	2 Cellular, Molecular, and Network Basis of SCN Circadian Timing	154
	2.1 Cellular Oscillation	155
	2.2 Amplitude of SCN Oscillation	155
	2.3 SCN Afferents and Efferents	157
	2.4 Circadian Organization of Motivation	157
	3 Circadian Regulation of Sleep–Wake/Arousal Cycles	157
	3.1 Homeostatic Regulation of Sleep: Adenosine	158
	3.2 Circadian Modulation of Sleep	158
	3.3 Feedback of Sleep to Circadian System	159
	4 Exercise/Activity	159
	4.1 Locomotor Activity is Rewarding	159
	4.2 Feedback of Exercise to Circadian System	160
	4.3 Activity Influences Other Motivated Behaviors	161
	5 Eating	161
	5.1 Feeding Duration	162
	5.2 Peripheral Factors Determining Eating	162
	5.3 Anticipatory Behavior Entails Circadian Timing	162
	5.4 Extra-SCN Circadian Oscillators Support Anticipatory Behaviors	163
	5.5 Oscillators Mediating Anticipation of Feeding	163
	5.6 Brain Oscillators	163
	5.7 Peripheral Oscillators	164
	5.8 Disrupted Circadian Control: Night Eating Syndrome	164
	6 Mating/Sex	165
	6.1 Sexual Behavior is Highly Motivated and is Under Temporal Control	165
	6.2 Interaction Between Sex and Other Motivated Behaviors	166
	6.3 Anticipatory Activity	167
	6.4 Feedback of Sexual Behavior to the Circadian System	168
	7 Maternal Behavior	168
	7.1 Feedback of Maternal Behavior on the Circadian Clock	168
	7.2 Neural Basis of Anticipation of Maternal Care	169
	7.3 Cellular Clock and Maternal Care	169
	8 Circadian Basis of Motivation Disorders	169
	8.1 Depression and Schizophrenia	170
	8.2 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder	170
	8.3 Circadian Considerations for Treatment of Psychiatric Conditions	171
	9 Conclusion	171
	References	172
	401 The Neural Foundations of Reaction and Action in Aversive Motivation	181
	Abstract	181
	1 Introduction	182
	2 Taxonomy of Behavior	182
	3 Historical Context of Studies on Aversive Learning	185
	4 Neural Basis of Reactions	186
	5 Diverse Functions of a Threat Stimulus: The Nature of Action and Reaction Learning in Aversive Motivation	190
	6 The Neural Basis of Aversively Motivated Actions	191
	6.1 Neural Control of Signaled and Unsignaled Avoidance Behavior	191
	6.2 Neural Control of Escape from Threat	195
	6.3 Incentive Motivation: Neural Circuits of Aversive Pavlovian-to-Instrumental Transfer	196
	7 Summary	199
	References	199
	Neural Measures and Correlates of Motivation Signals and Computations	206
	382 Neurophysiology of Reward-Guided Behavior: Correlates Related to Predictions, Value, Motivation, Errors, Attention, and Action	207
	Abstract	207
	1 Introduction	208
	2 Value Versus Motivation and Salience	210
	2.1 Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC)	211
	2.2 Nucleus Accumbens	214
	2.3 Parietal Cortex	215
	3 Signed Prediction Error Versus Attention/Salience	216
	3.1 Midbrain Dopamine (DA) Neurons	217
	3.2 Basolateral Amygdala (ABL)	218
	3.3 Anterior Cingulate (ACC)	221
	4 Correlates of Motivation and Associative Encoding in Striatum	222
	5 Integration of Positive and Negative Information into a Common Output Signal	226
	6 Conclusion	228
	Acknowledgements	229
	References	229
	383 Mesolimbic Dopamine and the Regulation of Motivated Behavior	239
	Abstract	239
	1 Introduction	240
	2 Dynamic Activity of DA Neurons: Multiple Modes of Responding	241
	3 Behavioral Manifestations of Interference with Accumbens DA Transmission: Dissociation of Distinct Components of Motivation and Reinforcement	242
	4 Manifestations of Interference with Accumbens DA Transmission: Behavioral Activation, Behavioral Economics, and Effort-Related Choice	247
	5 Clinical Significance of Effort-Related Functions	250
	6 Conclusions	254
	Acknowledgements	254
	References	255
	388 Learning and Motivational Processes Contributing to Pavlovian–Instrumental Transfer and Their Neural Bases: Dopamine and Beyond	266
	Abstract	266
	1 Introduction	267
	2 The Functional Importance of Pavlovian Conditioning	267
	3 The Pavlovian Control of Instrumental Action	269
	3.1 Instrumental and Pavlovian Incentive Processes	269
	3.2 General Versus Specific Transfer	271
	3.3 Specific Transfer and Choice	276
	4 Neural Bases of Transfer	277
	4.1 The Limbic-Striatal Circuit	277
	4.2 Dopamine and the Modulation of the Nucleus Accumbens	279
	4.3 Beyond Dopamine	281
	4.3.1 Opioid–Dopamine Interactions and the Role of Acetylcholine	281
	4.4 Beyond the Accumbens: The Extended Circuit	283
	4.4.1 Dorsal Striatum	283
	4.4.2 Ventral Pallidum	285
	4.4.3 Ventral Tegmental Area	287
	5 Pavlovian Incentives and Pathologies of Decision Making	288
	5.1 Exposure to Drugs of Abuse	288
	5.2 Obesogenic Food Exposure	289
	5.3 Stress	290
	6 Summary and Conclusions	291
	Acknowledgments	291
	References	291
	386 Multiple Systems for the Motivational Control of Behavior and Associated Neural Substrates in Humans	297
	Abstract	297
	1 Introduction	298
	2 The Neural Representation of Goal Values	298
	3 Outcome Values	299
	4 Prechoice Goal-Value Signals	299
	5 Common and Distinct Goal Values for Different Goods	300
	6 From Goal Values to Actions	302
	7 A Role for Dorsal Cortical Areas in Encoding Action–Outcome Probabilities and Effort	303
	8 Action Values	303
	9 An Alternative Route to Action: Habitual Mechanisms	304
	10 Pavlovian Effects on Motivation	306
	11 Pavlovian and Habitual Interactions and Paradoxical Motivational Effects for Non-valued Outcomes	308
	12 Other Approaches to Demonstrating the Role of the Ventral Striatum in Motivation Beyond PIT	308
	13 “Over-Arousal” and Choking Effects on Instrumental Responding	309
	14 How Is the Control of These Systems Over Behavior Regulated: The Role of Arbitration	312
	15 Translational Implications	313
	16 Conclusions	314
	References	314
	375 The Computational Complexity of Valuation and Motivational Forces in Decision-Making Processes	319
	Abstract	319
	1 What is Value?	320
	1.1 Measuring Value	321
	2 Taking the Subject’s Point of View	322
	2.1 Information Processing in Decision-Making Systems	322
	2.1.1 Algorithms of Revealed Preference (Deliberation)	323
	2.1.2 Algorithms of Willingness to Pay (Procedural)	325
	2.1.3 Algorithms of Approach and Avoidance (Pavlovian)	326
	2.1.4 The Role of Motivation	327
	2.1.5 The Macro-Agent	328
	3 Testing the Theory	328
	4 Summary and Implications	332
	5 Is Value Still a Valuable Hypothetical Construct?	334
	References	334
	Apathy and Pathological Deficits in Motivation	340
	400 The Neurobiology of Motivational Deficits in Depression—An Update on Candidate Pathomechanisms	341
	Abstract	341
	1 Introduction	342
	2 Motivation, Reinforcement, and Dopamine	344
	3 Motivation and Reinforcement in Depression—Implications for DA Dysfunction	347
	4 Candidate Pathophysiological Mechanisms of Motivational and Reinforcement Deficits in Depression	349
	4.1 A Role for Inflammation in Motivational Deficits in Depression	349
	5 Synaptic Plasticity Alterations May Impact Motivation in Patients with Depression	351
	6 Conclusion	352
	Acknowledgements and Disclosures	353
	References	353
	379 Motivational Deficits and Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia: Concepts and Assessments	360
	Abstract	360
	1 Introduction	361
	1.1 Historical Context	361
	1.2 Types of Negative Symptoms	361
	1.3 The Anhedonia Paradox	362
	2 Possible Factors that Contribute to Motivational Negative Symptoms	363
	2.1 Abnormalities in Anticipatory Pleasure	363
	2.2 Alterations in Reward Learning	365
	2.3 Effort-Based Decision-Making	366
	2.4 Social Motivation (Approach/Avoidance)	367
	3 Interventions for Motivational Negative Symptoms	368
	3.1 Conventional Approaches	369
	3.2 Recent Developments	370
	4 Conclusions	372
	References	372
	385 Motivational Deficits in Schizophrenia and the Representation of Expected Value	377
	Abstract	377
	1 Introduction	378
	2 Identifying a Relationship Between EV and Avolition: Considerations	379
	2.1 How Do We Quantify the Severity of Motivational Deficits in Schizophrenia?	379
	2.2 What Constitutes a Behavioral EV Signal?	380
	2.3 What Constitutes a Neural EV Signal?	382
	2.4 Distinguishing EV Signals from General Salience Signals	384
	2.5 Acquisition of Incentive Salience Versus on-the-Fly Computation of EV	385
	2.6 EV of Stimuli Versus EV of Actions	386
	3 Integrating EV with Cost Considerations to Guide Decision Making	387
	3.1 Distinguishing Wanting from Willingness to Work	387
	3.2 Distinguishing Wanting from Willingness to Wait	388
	4 Evidence for Faulty EV Signaling in SZ	388
	4.1 Behavioral and Modeling Evidence for Faulty EV Signaling in SZ	388
	4.1.1 Probabilistic Discrimination Learning in Schizophrenia	388
	4.1.2 Studies of in-the-Moment Value Estimation in Schizophrenia	391
	4.1.3 Devaluation and Extinction Experiments	391
	4.2 Neural Evidence for Faulty EV Signaling in SZ	392
	4.2.1 Investigating Hypothetical Decision Making in SZ with MRI	393
	4.2.2 Making Sense of MID Results	393
	4.2.3 Conditioning Experiments	393
	4.2.4 Conclusions Regarding Evidence for Faulty EV Signaling in SZ	397
	5 Avolition and Outcome Processing in Schizophrenia	397
	5.1 Behavioral Studies of Outcome Processing in Schizophrenia	398
	5.2 Neuroimaging Studies of Reward and Punishment Receipt in Schizophrenia	399
	5.3 Neuroimaging Studies of RPE Signaling in SZ	400
	5.4 Do Abnormalities in Consummatory Hedonics or RPE Signaling Account for Abnormalities in EV Signaling in SZ?	402
	6 General Conclusions	403
	References	405
	376 Mechanisms Underlying Motivational Deficits in Psychopathology: Similarities and Differences in Depression and Schizophrenia	413
	Abstract	413
	1 Introduction	414
	1.1 Translating Hedonic Experience into Motivated Behavior	415
	2 Hedonics and Liking	419
	2.1 Schizophrenia	419
	2.1.1 Monetary Rewards	419
	2.1.2 Primary Rewards	420
	2.1.3 Summary of Hedonics and Liking in Schizophrenia:	420
	2.2 Depression	421
	2.2.1 Monetary Rewards	422
	2.2.2 Primary Rewards	422
	2.2.3 Summary of Hedonics and Liking in Depression:	423
	2.3 Hedonics in Schizophrenia versus Depression	424
	3 Reward Prediction, Anticipation, and Reinforcement Learning	424
	3.1 Schizophrenia	424
	3.1.1 Reward Anticipation	424
	3.1.2 Reward Prediction Error	425
	3.1.3 Reinforcement Learning	426
	3.2 Depression	427
	3.2.1 Reward Anticipation	427
	3.2.2 Reward Prediction Error	428
	3.2.3 Reinforcement Learning	428
	3.3 Summary of Reward Prediction, Anticipation, and Reinforcement Learning in Schizophrenia and Depression	429
	4 Value Computations and OFC Function	430
	4.1 Schizophrenia	430
	4.2 Depression	431
	5 Effort Computations	431
	5.1 Schizophrenia	432
	5.2 Depression	433
	5.3 Summary of Effort Allocation in Schizophrenia and Depression	433
	6 Goal-Directed Action	434
	6.1 Schizophrenia	434
	6.2 Depression	435
	7 Summary of Reward and Motivational Neuroscience in Schizophrenia and Depression	435
	References	438
	380 Methods for Dissecting Motivation and Related Psychological Processes in Rodents	452
	Abstract	452
	1 Aspects of Motivation Impacted in Psychiatric Disease	455
	2 Assessing Anhedonia	456
	2.1 Preference Assessments	456
	2.2 Taste-Reactivity Testing	456
	3 Assessing Avolition	457
	3.1 Fixed- and Progressive-Ratio Schedules	457
	3.2 Effort-Related Choice Tasks	458
	4 Assessing Outcome Representation and Flexible Use of Represented Outcomes in Behaviour	459
	5 Separating Goal-Directed from Arousal Components of Motivation	460
	6 Dissecting Psychological Components of Motivation: An Example Using an Animal Model of the Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia	462
	7 Conclusions	467
	References	468
	Addiction and the Pathological Misdirection of Motivated Behaviour	472
	391 Motivational Processes Underlying Substance Abuse Disorder	473
	Abstract	473
	1 Introduction	474
	1.1 Rodent Models of Addiction	475
	2 Overview of Motivational Processes and Their Neurobiological Substrates	476
	3 Hedonic Allostasis	479
	4 Incentive Sensitization	482
	5 Addiction as a Disorder of Learning and Decision Making	485
	5.1 Goal- Versus Habit-Based Responding	486
	5.2 Neural Circuits Governing Goal- and Habit-Based Decision Making	487
	5.3 Pavlovian Cues: Reward Prediction, Incentive Salience, and Transfer to Instrumental Responding	489
	6 Impulsive Action and Impaired Executive Function	489
	7 Models that Integrate Motivational Concepts	490
	7.1 Dual-Process Models	490
	7.2 Transitions from Drug-Taking to Addiction	491
	7.3 Drug Addiction: A Compendium of Vulnerabilities	492
	8 Conclusion	493
	Acknowledgements	496
	References	496
	393 Skewed by Cues? The Motivational Role of Audiovisual Stimuli in Modelling Substance Use and Gambling Disorders	507
	Abstract	507
	1 Introduction	508
	2 The Impact of Conditioned Cues in Models of Drug Addiction	511
	2.1 Pavlovian Conditioning and Drug Addiction	511
	2.2 The Incentive Sensitization Theory of Drug Addiction	512
	2.3 Attentional Bias in Drug Addiction	513
	3 The Role of Cues in Gambling	514
	3.1 Animal Models of the Influence CS Exert over Behaviour	516
	3.2 Sign-Tracking	516
	3.3 Pavlovian-to-Instrumental Transfer	518
	3.4 Conditioned Reinforcement	519
	3.5 Interim Summary	520
	3.6 The Addition of Cues to Decision-Making Tasks Fundamentally Alters Neurobiological Regulation of Choice	521
	3.7 Concluding Remarks	523
	3.8 Financial Disclosures	523
	References	524
	Developments in Treatments for Motivation Pathologies	530
	373 The Role of Motivation in Cognitive Remediation for People with Schizophrenia	531
	Abstract	531
	1 Introduction	532
	2 The Role of Motivation in Learning	533
	3 Determinants of Intrinsic Motivation	534
	4 Intrinsic Motivation to Learn in Schizophrenia	535
	4.1 Do I Expect Success?	535
	4.2 Do I Value the Task?	536
	4.3 Are My Needs for Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness Met When I Engage in This Learning Activity?	537
	5 Translating Motivation Theory to Cognitive Remediation Practice	538
	5.1 The Learning Environment	538
	5.2 Instructional Techniques	539
	6 Conclusion	542
	References	543
	389 Distress from Motivational Dis-integration: When Fundamental Motives Are Too Weak or Too Strong	545
	Abstract	545
	1 Four Distinct Motivational Concerns	547
	2 Effective Motivational Pursuit	550
	3 Dis-integration from Motives Being Too Weak	551
	3.1 Depression	551
	3.2 Parkinson’s Disease	553
	3.3 Discussion: Dis-integration from Motives Being Too Weak	554
	4 Dis-integration from Motives Being Too Strong	555
	4.1 Anxiety	555
	4.2 Narcissism	557
	4.3 Discussion: Dis-integration from Motives Being Too Strong	559
	4.4 An Important Caveat	560
	5 Possibilities for Improvement: Micro-interventions	560
	6 Motivational Integration as a Source of Well-Being	562
	References	562
	374 Motivation and Contingency Management Treatments for Substance Use Disorders	567
	Abstract	567
	1 Preface	568
	2 Overview of Contingency Management	568
	2.1 Fundamentals of Contingency Management	569
	2.1.1 Monitoring of Behavior	569
	2.1.2 Types of Reinforcers	569
	2.2 Research Evidence	570
	3 Patient Motivation and Contingency Management	572
	3.1 External Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation	572
	3.2 Contingency Management and Intrinsic Motivation	574
	4 Summary	576
	References	576
	Index	580