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Preface |
6 |
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Contents |
8 |
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Contributors |
11 |
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402 The Behavioral Neuroscience of Motivation: An Overview of Concepts, Measures, and Translational Applications |
15 |
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Abstract |
15 |
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1 Why Motivation Is Important to Understand |
16 |
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2 What We Mean by the Word Motivation |
17 |
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3 A Simplified Overview of How Motivation Might Work in the Brain |
18 |
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4 Cost–Benefit Computation as the Arbiter of Motivated Behavior |
19 |
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5 Research Approaches to Understanding Motivation |
21 |
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6 Organismal Level Biology Is Critical to Understanding Motivation |
22 |
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7 Motivation Gone Wrong |
22 |
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8 Treatments |
24 |
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References |
25 |
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The Neurobiology of Components of Motivational Drive |
27 |
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381 Regulation of the Motivation to Eat |
28 |
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Abstract |
28 |
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1 Motivation |
29 |
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2 Eating |
31 |
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3 Homeostatic Versus Non-homeostatic Eating |
34 |
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4 Homeostatic Influences |
36 |
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5 Non-homeostatic Influences over the Motivation to Eat |
39 |
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6 Integration of Homeostatic and Non-homeostatic Influences over Food Intake |
40 |
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7 Summary |
41 |
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References |
42 |
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392 Sexual Motivation in the Female and Its Opposition by Stress |
48 |
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Abstract |
48 |
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1 Logic of Motivation |
49 |
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2 Sexual Mechanisms |
49 |
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3 Comparing Sex and Stress |
51 |
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4 Stress Mechanisms |
52 |
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5 Stress Impact upon Reproductive Behaviors in Females |
53 |
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6 Open Questions from the Works Referred To |
57 |
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7 Useful Research Topics for the Future |
57 |
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References |
59 |
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390 Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and the Motivational Forces that Drive Social Behaviors |
63 |
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Abstract |
63 |
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1 Overview |
64 |
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2 Origins and Mechanisms of Motivated Social Behaviors |
65 |
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2.1 Cooperative and Competitive Behaviors |
66 |
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2.2 Brain Areas that Regulate Cooperative and Competitive Behaviors |
68 |
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3 Neuroendocrine Modulation of Social Behaviors |
70 |
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3.1 The Oxytocin System |
70 |
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3.2 The Vasopressin System |
71 |
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3.3 Signaling by Oxytocin and Vasopressin in the Brain |
72 |
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3.4 Epigenetics |
74 |
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4 Oxytocin/Vasopressin and Cooperative and Competitive Behaviors: Social Memory, Social Interactions, and Aggression |
75 |
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4.1 Social Recognition Memory |
75 |
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4.2 Cooperative Behavior |
77 |
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4.3 Competitive Behavior |
79 |
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4.3.1 Oxytocin and Competitive Behavior |
79 |
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4.3.2 Vasopressin and Competitive Behavior |
81 |
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4.3.3 The Vasopressin 1a Receptor and Competitive Behavior |
81 |
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4.3.4 The Vasopressin 1A Receptor and Maternal Aggression |
83 |
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4.3.5 The Vasopressin 1b Receptor and Competitive Behavior |
84 |
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4.4 Social Communication |
85 |
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4.5 Interactions Between Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and Dopamine in the Regulation of Cooperation/Competition |
86 |
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5 Cooperativity and Competitiveness in Humans |
87 |
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5.1 Nonapeptides and Social Cognition in Healthy Humans |
88 |
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5.1.1 Oxytocin and Social Cognition in Humans |
88 |
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5.1.2 Vasopressin and Social Cognition in Humans |
90 |
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5.2 Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and the Mesolimbic Dopamine System |
90 |
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6 Implications for Neuropsychiatric Disorders |
91 |
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6.1 Autism Spectrum Disorder |
91 |
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6.2 Personality Disorder |
92 |
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6.3 Schizophrenia |
93 |
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6.4 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder |
94 |
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7 Conclusions and Future Directions |
95 |
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References |
96 |
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387 Roles of “Wanting” and “Liking” in Motivating Behavior: Gambling, Food, and Drug Addictions |
116 |
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Abstract |
116 |
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1 Introduction |
117 |
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2 “Liking” and “Wanting” |
117 |
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3 Drug Addiction |
123 |
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3.1 Evidence for the Incentive Sensitization Theory |
126 |
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3.2 The Role of “Liking,” and Alternate Hypotheses of Addiction |
128 |
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4 Gambling |
130 |
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5 Food Addiction |
134 |
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6 Concluding Remarks |
138 |
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References |
138 |
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384 Circadian Insights into Motivated Behavior |
148 |
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Abstract |
148 |
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1 Circadian Considerations for Motivated Behaviors |
150 |
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1.1 Goal-Directed and Arousal Aspects of Motivation |
150 |
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1.2 Circadian Rhythms Impact Goal-Directed Motivation |
151 |
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1.3 Circadian Rhythms Impact Arousal Components of Motivation |
152 |
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1.4 Distinguishing Circadian Arousal and Goal-Directed Components of Behavior |
153 |
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2 Cellular, Molecular, and Network Basis of SCN Circadian Timing |
154 |
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2.1 Cellular Oscillation |
155 |
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2.2 Amplitude of SCN Oscillation |
155 |
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2.3 SCN Afferents and Efferents |
157 |
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2.4 Circadian Organization of Motivation |
157 |
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3 Circadian Regulation of Sleep–Wake/Arousal Cycles |
157 |
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3.1 Homeostatic Regulation of Sleep: Adenosine |
158 |
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3.2 Circadian Modulation of Sleep |
158 |
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3.3 Feedback of Sleep to Circadian System |
159 |
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4 Exercise/Activity |
159 |
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4.1 Locomotor Activity is Rewarding |
159 |
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4.2 Feedback of Exercise to Circadian System |
160 |
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4.3 Activity Influences Other Motivated Behaviors |
161 |
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5 Eating |
161 |
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5.1 Feeding Duration |
162 |
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5.2 Peripheral Factors Determining Eating |
162 |
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5.3 Anticipatory Behavior Entails Circadian Timing |
162 |
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5.4 Extra-SCN Circadian Oscillators Support Anticipatory Behaviors |
163 |
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5.5 Oscillators Mediating Anticipation of Feeding |
163 |
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5.6 Brain Oscillators |
163 |
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5.7 Peripheral Oscillators |
164 |
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5.8 Disrupted Circadian Control: Night Eating Syndrome |
164 |
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6 Mating/Sex |
165 |
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6.1 Sexual Behavior is Highly Motivated and is Under Temporal Control |
165 |
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6.2 Interaction Between Sex and Other Motivated Behaviors |
166 |
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6.3 Anticipatory Activity |
167 |
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6.4 Feedback of Sexual Behavior to the Circadian System |
168 |
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7 Maternal Behavior |
168 |
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7.1 Feedback of Maternal Behavior on the Circadian Clock |
168 |
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7.2 Neural Basis of Anticipation of Maternal Care |
169 |
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7.3 Cellular Clock and Maternal Care |
169 |
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8 Circadian Basis of Motivation Disorders |
169 |
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8.1 Depression and Schizophrenia |
170 |
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8.2 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder |
170 |
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8.3 Circadian Considerations for Treatment of Psychiatric Conditions |
171 |
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9 Conclusion |
171 |
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References |
172 |
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401 The Neural Foundations of Reaction and Action in Aversive Motivation |
181 |
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Abstract |
181 |
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1 Introduction |
182 |
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2 Taxonomy of Behavior |
182 |
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3 Historical Context of Studies on Aversive Learning |
185 |
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4 Neural Basis of Reactions |
186 |
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5 Diverse Functions of a Threat Stimulus: The Nature of Action and Reaction Learning in Aversive Motivation |
190 |
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6 The Neural Basis of Aversively Motivated Actions |
191 |
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6.1 Neural Control of Signaled and Unsignaled Avoidance Behavior |
191 |
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6.2 Neural Control of Escape from Threat |
195 |
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6.3 Incentive Motivation: Neural Circuits of Aversive Pavlovian-to-Instrumental Transfer |
196 |
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7 Summary |
199 |
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References |
199 |
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Neural Measures and Correlates of Motivation Signals and Computations |
206 |
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382 Neurophysiology of Reward-Guided Behavior: Correlates Related to Predictions, Value, Motivation, Errors, Attention, and Action |
207 |
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Abstract |
207 |
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1 Introduction |
208 |
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2 Value Versus Motivation and Salience |
210 |
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2.1 Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC) |
211 |
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2.2 Nucleus Accumbens |
214 |
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2.3 Parietal Cortex |
215 |
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3 Signed Prediction Error Versus Attention/Salience |
216 |
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3.1 Midbrain Dopamine (DA) Neurons |
217 |
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3.2 Basolateral Amygdala (ABL) |
218 |
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3.3 Anterior Cingulate (ACC) |
221 |
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4 Correlates of Motivation and Associative Encoding in Striatum |
222 |
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5 Integration of Positive and Negative Information into a Common Output Signal |
226 |
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6 Conclusion |
228 |
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Acknowledgements |
229 |
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References |
229 |
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383 Mesolimbic Dopamine and the Regulation of Motivated Behavior |
239 |
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Abstract |
239 |
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1 Introduction |
240 |
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2 Dynamic Activity of DA Neurons: Multiple Modes of Responding |
241 |
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3 Behavioral Manifestations of Interference with Accumbens DA Transmission: Dissociation of Distinct Components of Motivation and Reinforcement |
242 |
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4 Manifestations of Interference with Accumbens DA Transmission: Behavioral Activation, Behavioral Economics, and Effort-Related Choice |
247 |
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5 Clinical Significance of Effort-Related Functions |
250 |
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6 Conclusions |
254 |
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Acknowledgements |
254 |
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References |
255 |
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388 Learning and Motivational Processes Contributing to Pavlovian–Instrumental Transfer and Their Neural Bases: Dopamine and Beyond |
266 |
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Abstract |
266 |
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1 Introduction |
267 |
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2 The Functional Importance of Pavlovian Conditioning |
267 |
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3 The Pavlovian Control of Instrumental Action |
269 |
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3.1 Instrumental and Pavlovian Incentive Processes |
269 |
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3.2 General Versus Specific Transfer |
271 |
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3.3 Specific Transfer and Choice |
276 |
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4 Neural Bases of Transfer |
277 |
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4.1 The Limbic-Striatal Circuit |
277 |
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4.2 Dopamine and the Modulation of the Nucleus Accumbens |
279 |
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4.3 Beyond Dopamine |
281 |
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4.3.1 Opioid–Dopamine Interactions and the Role of Acetylcholine |
281 |
|
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4.4 Beyond the Accumbens: The Extended Circuit |
283 |
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4.4.1 Dorsal Striatum |
283 |
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4.4.2 Ventral Pallidum |
285 |
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4.4.3 Ventral Tegmental Area |
287 |
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5 Pavlovian Incentives and Pathologies of Decision Making |
288 |
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5.1 Exposure to Drugs of Abuse |
288 |
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5.2 Obesogenic Food Exposure |
289 |
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5.3 Stress |
290 |
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6 Summary and Conclusions |
291 |
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Acknowledgments |
291 |
|
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References |
291 |
|
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386 Multiple Systems for the Motivational Control of Behavior and Associated Neural Substrates in Humans |
297 |
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Abstract |
297 |
|
|
1 Introduction |
298 |
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2 The Neural Representation of Goal Values |
298 |
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3 Outcome Values |
299 |
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4 Prechoice Goal-Value Signals |
299 |
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5 Common and Distinct Goal Values for Different Goods |
300 |
|
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6 From Goal Values to Actions |
302 |
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7 A Role for Dorsal Cortical Areas in Encoding Action–Outcome Probabilities and Effort |
303 |
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8 Action Values |
303 |
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9 An Alternative Route to Action: Habitual Mechanisms |
304 |
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10 Pavlovian Effects on Motivation |
306 |
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11 Pavlovian and Habitual Interactions and Paradoxical Motivational Effects for Non-valued Outcomes |
308 |
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12 Other Approaches to Demonstrating the Role of the Ventral Striatum in Motivation Beyond PIT |
308 |
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13 “Over-Arousal” and Choking Effects on Instrumental Responding |
309 |
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14 How Is the Control of These Systems Over Behavior Regulated: The Role of Arbitration |
312 |
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15 Translational Implications |
313 |
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16 Conclusions |
314 |
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References |
314 |
|
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375 The Computational Complexity of Valuation and Motivational Forces in Decision-Making Processes |
319 |
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Abstract |
319 |
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1 What is Value? |
320 |
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1.1 Measuring Value |
321 |
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2 Taking the Subject’s Point of View |
322 |
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2.1 Information Processing in Decision-Making Systems |
322 |
|
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2.1.1 Algorithms of Revealed Preference (Deliberation) |
323 |
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2.1.2 Algorithms of Willingness to Pay (Procedural) |
325 |
|
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2.1.3 Algorithms of Approach and Avoidance (Pavlovian) |
326 |
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2.1.4 The Role of Motivation |
327 |
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2.1.5 The Macro-Agent |
328 |
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3 Testing the Theory |
328 |
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4 Summary and Implications |
332 |
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5 Is Value Still a Valuable Hypothetical Construct? |
334 |
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References |
334 |
|
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Apathy and Pathological Deficits in Motivation |
340 |
|
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400 The Neurobiology of Motivational Deficits in Depression—An Update on Candidate Pathomechanisms |
341 |
|
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Abstract |
341 |
|
|
1 Introduction |
342 |
|
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2 Motivation, Reinforcement, and Dopamine |
344 |
|
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3 Motivation and Reinforcement in Depression—Implications for DA Dysfunction |
347 |
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4 Candidate Pathophysiological Mechanisms of Motivational and Reinforcement Deficits in Depression |
349 |
|
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4.1 A Role for Inflammation in Motivational Deficits in Depression |
349 |
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5 Synaptic Plasticity Alterations May Impact Motivation in Patients with Depression |
351 |
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6 Conclusion |
352 |
|
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Acknowledgements and Disclosures |
353 |
|
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References |
353 |
|
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379 Motivational Deficits and Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia: Concepts and Assessments |
360 |
|
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Abstract |
360 |
|
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1 Introduction |
361 |
|
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1.1 Historical Context |
361 |
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1.2 Types of Negative Symptoms |
361 |
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1.3 The Anhedonia Paradox |
362 |
|
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2 Possible Factors that Contribute to Motivational Negative Symptoms |
363 |
|
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2.1 Abnormalities in Anticipatory Pleasure |
363 |
|
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2.2 Alterations in Reward Learning |
365 |
|
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2.3 Effort-Based Decision-Making |
366 |
|
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2.4 Social Motivation (Approach/Avoidance) |
367 |
|
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3 Interventions for Motivational Negative Symptoms |
368 |
|
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3.1 Conventional Approaches |
369 |
|
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3.2 Recent Developments |
370 |
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4 Conclusions |
372 |
|
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References |
372 |
|
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385 Motivational Deficits in Schizophrenia and the Representation of Expected Value |
377 |
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Abstract |
377 |
|
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1 Introduction |
378 |
|
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2 Identifying a Relationship Between EV and Avolition: Considerations |
379 |
|
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2.1 How Do We Quantify the Severity of Motivational Deficits in Schizophrenia? |
379 |
|
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2.2 What Constitutes a Behavioral EV Signal? |
380 |
|
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2.3 What Constitutes a Neural EV Signal? |
382 |
|
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2.4 Distinguishing EV Signals from General Salience Signals |
384 |
|
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2.5 Acquisition of Incentive Salience Versus on-the-Fly Computation of EV |
385 |
|
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2.6 EV of Stimuli Versus EV of Actions |
386 |
|
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3 Integrating EV with Cost Considerations to Guide Decision Making |
387 |
|
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3.1 Distinguishing Wanting from Willingness to Work |
387 |
|
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3.2 Distinguishing Wanting from Willingness to Wait |
388 |
|
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4 Evidence for Faulty EV Signaling in SZ |
388 |
|
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4.1 Behavioral and Modeling Evidence for Faulty EV Signaling in SZ |
388 |
|
|
4.1.1 Probabilistic Discrimination Learning in Schizophrenia |
388 |
|
|
4.1.2 Studies of in-the-Moment Value Estimation in Schizophrenia |
391 |
|
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4.1.3 Devaluation and Extinction Experiments |
391 |
|
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4.2 Neural Evidence for Faulty EV Signaling in SZ |
392 |
|
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4.2.1 Investigating Hypothetical Decision Making in SZ with MRI |
393 |
|
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4.2.2 Making Sense of MID Results |
393 |
|
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4.2.3 Conditioning Experiments |
393 |
|
|
4.2.4 Conclusions Regarding Evidence for Faulty EV Signaling in SZ |
397 |
|
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5 Avolition and Outcome Processing in Schizophrenia |
397 |
|
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5.1 Behavioral Studies of Outcome Processing in Schizophrenia |
398 |
|
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5.2 Neuroimaging Studies of Reward and Punishment Receipt in Schizophrenia |
399 |
|
|
5.3 Neuroimaging Studies of RPE Signaling in SZ |
400 |
|
|
5.4 Do Abnormalities in Consummatory Hedonics or RPE Signaling Account for Abnormalities in EV Signaling in SZ? |
402 |
|
|
6 General Conclusions |
403 |
|
|
References |
405 |
|
|
376 Mechanisms Underlying Motivational Deficits in Psychopathology: Similarities and Differences in Depression and Schizophrenia |
413 |
|
|
Abstract |
413 |
|
|
1 Introduction |
414 |
|
|
1.1 Translating Hedonic Experience into Motivated Behavior |
415 |
|
|
2 Hedonics and Liking |
419 |
|
|
2.1 Schizophrenia |
419 |
|
|
2.1.1 Monetary Rewards |
419 |
|
|
2.1.2 Primary Rewards |
420 |
|
|
2.1.3 Summary of Hedonics and Liking in Schizophrenia: |
420 |
|
|
2.2 Depression |
421 |
|
|
2.2.1 Monetary Rewards |
422 |
|
|
2.2.2 Primary Rewards |
422 |
|
|
2.2.3 Summary of Hedonics and Liking in Depression: |
423 |
|
|
2.3 Hedonics in Schizophrenia versus Depression |
424 |
|
|
3 Reward Prediction, Anticipation, and Reinforcement Learning |
424 |
|
|
3.1 Schizophrenia |
424 |
|
|
3.1.1 Reward Anticipation |
424 |
|
|
3.1.2 Reward Prediction Error |
425 |
|
|
3.1.3 Reinforcement Learning |
426 |
|
|
3.2 Depression |
427 |
|
|
3.2.1 Reward Anticipation |
427 |
|
|
3.2.2 Reward Prediction Error |
428 |
|
|
3.2.3 Reinforcement Learning |
428 |
|
|
3.3 Summary of Reward Prediction, Anticipation, and Reinforcement Learning in Schizophrenia and Depression |
429 |
|
|
4 Value Computations and OFC Function |
430 |
|
|
4.1 Schizophrenia |
430 |
|
|
4.2 Depression |
431 |
|
|
5 Effort Computations |
431 |
|
|
5.1 Schizophrenia |
432 |
|
|
5.2 Depression |
433 |
|
|
5.3 Summary of Effort Allocation in Schizophrenia and Depression |
433 |
|
|
6 Goal-Directed Action |
434 |
|
|
6.1 Schizophrenia |
434 |
|
|
6.2 Depression |
435 |
|
|
7 Summary of Reward and Motivational Neuroscience in Schizophrenia and Depression |
435 |
|
|
References |
438 |
|
|
380 Methods for Dissecting Motivation and Related Psychological Processes in Rodents |
452 |
|
|
Abstract |
452 |
|
|
1 Aspects of Motivation Impacted in Psychiatric Disease |
455 |
|
|
2 Assessing Anhedonia |
456 |
|
|
2.1 Preference Assessments |
456 |
|
|
2.2 Taste-Reactivity Testing |
456 |
|
|
3 Assessing Avolition |
457 |
|
|
3.1 Fixed- and Progressive-Ratio Schedules |
457 |
|
|
3.2 Effort-Related Choice Tasks |
458 |
|
|
4 Assessing Outcome Representation and Flexible Use of Represented Outcomes in Behaviour |
459 |
|
|
5 Separating Goal-Directed from Arousal Components of Motivation |
460 |
|
|
6 Dissecting Psychological Components of Motivation: An Example Using an Animal Model of the Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia |
462 |
|
|
7 Conclusions |
467 |
|
|
References |
468 |
|
|
Addiction and the Pathological Misdirection of Motivated Behaviour |
472 |
|
|
391 Motivational Processes Underlying Substance Abuse Disorder |
473 |
|
|
Abstract |
473 |
|
|
1 Introduction |
474 |
|
|
1.1 Rodent Models of Addiction |
475 |
|
|
2 Overview of Motivational Processes and Their Neurobiological Substrates |
476 |
|
|
3 Hedonic Allostasis |
479 |
|
|
4 Incentive Sensitization |
482 |
|
|
5 Addiction as a Disorder of Learning and Decision Making |
485 |
|
|
5.1 Goal- Versus Habit-Based Responding |
486 |
|
|
5.2 Neural Circuits Governing Goal- and Habit-Based Decision Making |
487 |
|
|
5.3 Pavlovian Cues: Reward Prediction, Incentive Salience, and Transfer to Instrumental Responding |
489 |
|
|
6 Impulsive Action and Impaired Executive Function |
489 |
|
|
7 Models that Integrate Motivational Concepts |
490 |
|
|
7.1 Dual-Process Models |
490 |
|
|
7.2 Transitions from Drug-Taking to Addiction |
491 |
|
|
7.3 Drug Addiction: A Compendium of Vulnerabilities |
492 |
|
|
8 Conclusion |
493 |
|
|
Acknowledgements |
496 |
|
|
References |
496 |
|
|
393 Skewed by Cues? The Motivational Role of Audiovisual Stimuli in Modelling Substance Use and Gambling Disorders |
507 |
|
|
Abstract |
507 |
|
|
1 Introduction |
508 |
|
|
2 The Impact of Conditioned Cues in Models of Drug Addiction |
511 |
|
|
2.1 Pavlovian Conditioning and Drug Addiction |
511 |
|
|
2.2 The Incentive Sensitization Theory of Drug Addiction |
512 |
|
|
2.3 Attentional Bias in Drug Addiction |
513 |
|
|
3 The Role of Cues in Gambling |
514 |
|
|
3.1 Animal Models of the Influence CS Exert over Behaviour |
516 |
|
|
3.2 Sign-Tracking |
516 |
|
|
3.3 Pavlovian-to-Instrumental Transfer |
518 |
|
|
3.4 Conditioned Reinforcement |
519 |
|
|
3.5 Interim Summary |
520 |
|
|
3.6 The Addition of Cues to Decision-Making Tasks Fundamentally Alters Neurobiological Regulation of Choice |
521 |
|
|
3.7 Concluding Remarks |
523 |
|
|
3.8 Financial Disclosures |
523 |
|
|
References |
524 |
|
|
Developments in Treatments for Motivation Pathologies |
530 |
|
|
373 The Role of Motivation in Cognitive Remediation for People with Schizophrenia |
531 |
|
|
Abstract |
531 |
|
|
1 Introduction |
532 |
|
|
2 The Role of Motivation in Learning |
533 |
|
|
3 Determinants of Intrinsic Motivation |
534 |
|
|
4 Intrinsic Motivation to Learn in Schizophrenia |
535 |
|
|
4.1 Do I Expect Success? |
535 |
|
|
4.2 Do I Value the Task? |
536 |
|
|
4.3 Are My Needs for Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness Met When I Engage in This Learning Activity? |
537 |
|
|
5 Translating Motivation Theory to Cognitive Remediation Practice |
538 |
|
|
5.1 The Learning Environment |
538 |
|
|
5.2 Instructional Techniques |
539 |
|
|
6 Conclusion |
542 |
|
|
References |
543 |
|
|
389 Distress from Motivational Dis-integration: When Fundamental Motives Are Too Weak or Too Strong |
545 |
|
|
Abstract |
545 |
|
|
1 Four Distinct Motivational Concerns |
547 |
|
|
2 Effective Motivational Pursuit |
550 |
|
|
3 Dis-integration from Motives Being Too Weak |
551 |
|
|
3.1 Depression |
551 |
|
|
3.2 Parkinson’s Disease |
553 |
|
|
3.3 Discussion: Dis-integration from Motives Being Too Weak |
554 |
|
|
4 Dis-integration from Motives Being Too Strong |
555 |
|
|
4.1 Anxiety |
555 |
|
|
4.2 Narcissism |
557 |
|
|
4.3 Discussion: Dis-integration from Motives Being Too Strong |
559 |
|
|
4.4 An Important Caveat |
560 |
|
|
5 Possibilities for Improvement: Micro-interventions |
560 |
|
|
6 Motivational Integration as a Source of Well-Being |
562 |
|
|
References |
562 |
|
|
374 Motivation and Contingency Management Treatments for Substance Use Disorders |
567 |
|
|
Abstract |
567 |
|
|
1 Preface |
568 |
|
|
2 Overview of Contingency Management |
568 |
|
|
2.1 Fundamentals of Contingency Management |
569 |
|
|
2.1.1 Monitoring of Behavior |
569 |
|
|
2.1.2 Types of Reinforcers |
569 |
|
|
2.2 Research Evidence |
570 |
|
|
3 Patient Motivation and Contingency Management |
572 |
|
|
3.1 External Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation |
572 |
|
|
3.2 Contingency Management and Intrinsic Motivation |
574 |
|
|
4 Summary |
576 |
|
|
References |
576 |
|
|
Index |
580 |
|