Title Page	5
	Copyright Page	6
	Contents	7
	Contributors	9
	Chapter 1 Introduction: Environmental Psychology and its Methods	11
	Note	17
	Chapter 2 Observational Methods: The First Step in Science	19
	What is Observational Research and Why do it?	20
	General and Specific Methods for Observation	22
	General methods	22
	Specific tools	27
	A Word on Ethics	30
	Coding and Inter-observer Reliability	31
	Coding	31
	Inter-observer agreement	32
	Observing by Watching: Final Thoughts	33
	Glossary	34
	Note	35
	References	35
	Suggested Readings	37
	Chapter 3 Behavioral Mapping and Tracking	39
	Behavioral Mapping	40
	What it is	40
	Why this technique is important	40
	Purposes	41
	A brief history	41
	Procedure	43
	Behavioral Tracking (Individual-centered Mapping)	44
	Data Analysis and Presentation	45
	Examples	46
	Public squares	46
	Playground and schoolyard	47
	Aquarium	47
	Residential care setting	47
	Library	48
	Retail setting	48
	Challenges and Limitations	49
	Intrusiveness and reactivity	49
	Ethical issues	49
	Reliability and validity	50
	Data analysis	50
	Explanations for behavior	51
	Labor intensive	51
	Use of Technology	51
	Case Study: Behavioral Mapping and Tracking in a Small Public Library	53
	Physical Traces	56
	Summary and Conclusions	57
	Glossary	58
	References	58
	Suggested Readings	61
	Chapter 4 Research Designs for Environmental Issues	63
	Choosing a Research Design	64
	Experimental designs	64
	Quasi-experimental designs	66
	Correlational designs	69
	Measurement	71
	Levels of measurement	72
	Types of measures	73
	Psychometrics	73
	Uses of measured variables	74
	General Issues	75
	Internal and external validity	76
	Replication and meta-analysis	76
	Researcher degrees of freedom	77
	Conclusion and Summary	78
	Glossary	78
	References	79
	Suggested Readings	80
	Chapter 5 Agree to Disagree: A Practical Guide to Conducting Survey Research in Environmental Psychology	81
	Designing Survey Research	83
	Research design	83
	Survey development	83
	Survey Administration	88
	Probability and non-probability sampling	88
	Minimizing sampling and non-response error	93
	Selecting a mode of survey administration	94
	Pre-testing Surveys	96
	Data Analysis and Reporting Data Analysis	96
	Statistical adjustments for non-representative samples	97
	Writing up survey research findings	98
	Summary and Conclusions	98
	Glossary	98
	References	100
	Suggested Readings	101
	Chapter 6 Who Cares? Measuring Environmental Attitudes	103
	Definition of Environmental Attitudes	104
	Why Measure Environmental Attitudes?	104
	Measuring Environmental Attitudes	105
	Self-report measures of EA for use with adult populations	109
	Self-report measures of EA for use with children and adolescents	112
	Self-report measures of EA toward built environments	114
	Choosing and Using a Measure of EA	116
	Reliability and Validity	117
	Dimensionality	117
	Modifying scales	117
	Scale length	118
	Measurement across groups	118
	Other important issues	118
	New Trends in the Area	119
	Summary and Conclusions	120
	Glossary	120
	References	121
	Suggested Readings	124
	Chapter 7 Qualitative Approaches to Environment–Behavior Research	125
	Commonalities Among, and Differences Between, Qualitative Approaches	126
	Ontologies and Epistemologies	127
	Three Philosophical Positions	128
	Three Conceptual Approaches Used in Qualitative Research	129
	Grounded theory	129
	Phenomenology	132
	Discourse analysis	134
	Interviewing as a Qualitative Method	136
	Structured, semi-structured, and unstructured interviews	138
	Group interviews and focus groups	139
	Validity and Qualitative Research	139
	Summary and Conclusions	141
	Glossary	141
	References	143
	Suggested Readings	145
	Chapter 8 Revealing the Conceptual Systems of Places	147
	Restrictive Explorations	148
	The Repertory Grid	150
	Repertory Grid procedure	150
	Problems with the Repertory Grid	153
	The Repertory Grid instead of Q-sorts and paired comparisons	154
	Sorting as a Focus for an Interview	155
	The Multiple Sorting Procedure	156
	An individual example	157
	A comparison of individuals	159
	Aggregate of conceptualizations	163
	Summary and Conclusions	166
	Glossary	166
	Notes	167
	References	167
	Suggested Sources	169
	Chapter 9 Behavioral Methods for Spatial Cognition Research	171
	Media for Experiencing Spatiality and Acquiring Spatial Beliefs	173
	Observation of Behavior	174
	Observing non-verbal behavior	174
	Observing verbal behavior	176
	Case Study: How People Get Lost and Found in the Seattle Public Library	177
	Explicit Reports: Tests and Surveys	177
	Scaling in spatial cognition	179
	Other non-verbal explicit reports in spatial cognition	182
	Sketch maps and related formats in spatial cognition	184
	Verbal explicit reports	185
	Summary and Conclusions	186
	Glossary	187
	References	188
	Suggested Readings	191
	Chapter 10 Microworlds: Using Computers to Understand Choices about the Use of Natural Resources	193
	Commons Dilemma	194
	Simulating Commons Dilemmas	195
	Microworlds Defined	197
	Methodological Approaches in Microworld Research	198
	FISH 4	198
	Advantages of Microworlds	200
	Realism	201
	Experimental control	202
	Other advantages	203
	Summary and Conclusion	203
	Glossary	204
	References	204
	Suggested Readings	206
	Chapter 11 Simulating Designed Environments	207
	Strategic Decisions	208
	Purpose	208
	Sensory modality	208
	Describing objects in space and time	209
	Validity	210
	Efficiency	212
	Skills and tools	212
	Summary of strategic decisions	214
	Summary of simulation validity	217
	Examples	218
	Example 1: Use of kinesthesis in convex environments	218
	Example 2: Locations of viewpoints in concave environments	218
	Example 3: Contextual design review	219
	Summary of examples	224
	Summary and Conclusion	224
	Appendix	225
	References	227
	Suggested Readings	230
	Chapter 12 Planning the Built Environment: Programming	231
	Programming Defined	232
	Clients and Users	234
	The Goals of Programming	234
	Programmer Roles	235
	Programming Methods	236
	Literature review	236
	Gathering information about user perceptions, preferences, needs, and desires	237
	Gathering information about how space is used	238
	Simulation	240
	Needs assessment	241
	Focus groups	242
	Group process methods	243
	How to Choose and Adapt Methods	247
	The Challenges of Programming	247
	Case Study: Juvenile and Family Court Project	249
	Summary and Conclusions	255
	Glossary	255
	References	255
	Suggested Readings	256
	Chapter 13 Did that Plan Work? Post-occupancy Evaluation	259
	Post-occupancy Evaluation Defined	261
	A Brief History of POE	262
	Types of Post-Occupancy Evaluation	264
	Post-Occupancy Evaluation Methods	265
	Assessing attitudes and behaviors in a setting	265
	Conceptual approaches in assessing the physical setting	266
	The Challenges of Post-occupancy Evaluation	268
	Case Study: Usability Assessment of Lighting and Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) Conditions in Three Tenanted Buildings	269
	Research design and methods	270
	Summary of pre-retrofit evaluation	270
	Summary of post-retrofit evaluation	271
	Lighting control and variation	273
	Summary and Conclusions	274
	Glossary	275
	References	275
	Suggested Readings	279
	Chapter 14 Action Research: Enhancing Application	281
	What is Action Research?	282
	Case Study: The Commons Tree-Planting Project	283
	A community identifies an issue as a potential AR project	283
	Relationship building and setting the ground for effective group learning	286
	Develop the research plan	287
	Conducting research	291
	Data analysis	292
	Effecting change – Taking action	294
	Post-research evaluation and reflection	295
	Post-research evaluation	295
	Dissemination	296
	Celebration	297
	Strengths and Limitations	297
	Conclusion	297
	Glossary	298
	References	299
	Suggested Readings	300
	Chapter 15 Research Designs for Measuring the Effectiveness of Interventions	301
	Research Designs	302
	Experimental designs	302
	Quasi-experimental designs	305
	Non-experimental designs	308
	Threats to Validity	310
	Practical Considerations	312
	Summary and Conclusion	314
	Glossary	314
	References	315
	Suggested Readings	316
	Chapter 16 Applying Behavioral Science for Environmental Sustainability	317
	Behavior Change: Antecedents and Consequences	318
	Activator interventions	319
	Consequence strategies	320
	Evaluating the Effectiveness of Interventions	321
	Research designs to evaluate intervention impact	321
	Measurement	326
	Planning and Implementing an Intervention	327
	Summary and Conclusion	328
	Glossary	329
	References	330
	Suggested Readings	332
	Chapter 17 Improving Human Functioning: Ecotherapy and Environmental Health Approaches	333
	Environmental Psychology and Human Health	335
	Choosing Research Methods	336
	Reflection about Your Personal Beliefs and Motivations	336
	Operationalizing Nature: Domestic, Nearby and Wild	337
	The Research Programs and Their Methods	338
	Ecotherapy in the community: Forestry Scotland and Branching Out	338
	Wilderness and adventure therapy: the outdoor behavioral healthcare industry research council	341
	Public health approaches: The Landscape and Human Health Laboratory	343
	Research in Environmental Psychology and Health: Reflection on Practical and Ethical Issues	345
	Consult the ethics code in your discipline	345
	Risk management	346
	Multicultural competency	346
	Therapeutic mechanisms, satisfaction and the placebo effect	347
	Summary and Conclusions	347
	Glossary	348
	References	349
	Suggested Readings	353
	Chapter 18 Research and Design for Special Populations	355
	Dementia and Environmental Design	356
	Research methods: General considerations	357
	Methods for studying wayfinding strategies for people with dementia	357
	Methods for studying environmental familiarity for people with dementia	358
	Case Study: A Multiple Sclerosis Center Program and Post-Occupancy Evaluation	359
	The story	360
	The old and new premises	362
	The design cycle	364
	Setting out	364
	Charting a course	364
	Interviews	365
	Observations	365
	Ranking and wrangling	371
	Design and construction	371
	The post-occupancy evaluation	372
	Conclusions	376
	A Note on the Ethics of Researching Special Populations	376
	Summary and Conclusion	376
	Glossary	376
	References	377
	Suggested readings	377
	Chapter 19 Advanced Statistics for Environment-Behavior Research: Multi-level Modeling and Structural Equation Modeling	379
	Multi-level Modeling	380
	Traditional approaches for dealing with nested data structures	380
	Types of research questions addressed by MLM	381
	Selected examples from environment-behavior research	382
	Considerations related to non-independent errors and statistical power	383
	MLM software and online sources of information	384
	Structural Equation Modeling	385
	SEM as a path analysis	385
	SEM as a confirmatory technique	386
	SEM as a hybrid approach	387
	SEM testing	388
	SEM worked examples	389
	Further applications of SEM	394
	Considerations related to sample size and power analysis	394
	SEM software and online sources of information	395
	Summary and Conclusions	395
	Glossary	396
	References	396
	Suggested Readings	398
	Chapter 20 Meta-analysis: An Analysis of Analyses	399
	Overview and Brief History of Meta-analysis	400
	Overview	400
	Brief history	401
	Narrative Reviews versus Meta-Analyses	402
	Narrative reviews	402
	Meta-analyses	403
	Underlying Assumptions of Statistical Models	405
	Fixed-effect versus random-effects models	405
	Method for Conducting a Meta-analysis	405
	Study selection	406
	Data extraction	407
	Data synthesis and analysis	407
	Important Meta-analysis Statistics	408
	Effect size	408
	Heterogeneity	409
	Publication bias	412
	Reporting Meta-analysis Results	414
	Summary and Conclusions	414
	Glossary	415
	References	417
	Suggested Readings	418
	Author Index	419
	Subject Index	431
	EULA	441