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Title Page |
5 |
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Copyright Page |
6 |
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Brief Contents |
7 |
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Contents |
9 |
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List of Figures |
21 |
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List of Tables |
23 |
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List of Boxes |
24 |
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List of Contributors |
26 |
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Chapter 1 Environmental Psychology: History, Scope, and Methods |
31 |
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1.1 Introduction |
32 |
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1.2 History of the Field |
32 |
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1.2.1 Towards ‘Architectural’ Psychology |
33 |
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1.2.2 Towards a Green Psychology |
34 |
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1.3 Current Scope and Characteristics of the Field |
34 |
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1.3.1 Interactive Approach |
34 |
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1.3.2 Interdisciplinary Collaboration |
35 |
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1.3.3 Problem?Focused Approach |
35 |
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1.3.4 Diversity of Methods |
36 |
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1.4 Main Research Methods in Environmental Psychology |
36 |
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1.4.1 Questionnaire Studies |
37 |
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1.4.2 Laboratory Experiments |
38 |
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1.4.3 Computer Simulation Studies |
38 |
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1.4.4 Field Studies |
39 |
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1.4.5 Case Studies |
39 |
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1.5 Overview of the Book |
40 |
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Glossary |
40 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
41 |
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Review Questions |
41 |
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Part I Environmental Influences on Human Behaviour and Well?Being |
43 |
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Chapter 2 Environmental Risk Perception |
45 |
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2.1 Introduction |
46 |
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2.2 What Are Environmental Risks? |
46 |
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2.3 Subjective Risk Judgements |
47 |
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2.3.1 Heuristics and Biases in Risk Judgements |
47 |
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2.3.2 Temporal Discounting of Environmental Risks |
49 |
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2.3.3 The Psychometric Paradigm |
49 |
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2.4 Risk, Values, and Morality |
49 |
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2.4.1 Values |
50 |
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2.4.2 Morality and Ethics |
51 |
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2.5 Emotional Reactions to Environmental Risks |
52 |
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2.6 Summary |
53 |
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Glossary |
53 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
54 |
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Review Questions |
55 |
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Chapter 3 Climate Change as a Unique Environmental Problem |
56 |
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3.1 Introduction |
57 |
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3.2 Public Understanding of Climate Change |
57 |
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3.3 Assessing the Risk of Climate Change |
58 |
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3.3.1 Detecting a Problem |
60 |
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3.3.2 Interpretations of Problems |
61 |
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3.3.3 Accepting Responsibility and Taking Action |
62 |
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3.4 Summary |
63 |
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Glossary |
63 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
64 |
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Review Questions |
65 |
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Chapter 4 Environmental Stress |
66 |
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4.1 Introduction |
67 |
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4.2 Conceptualizations of Stress |
67 |
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4.3 Effects of Environmental Stress |
68 |
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4.3.1 Noise |
68 |
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4.3.2 Crowding |
70 |
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4.3.3 Poor Housing Quality |
71 |
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4.3.4 Poor Neighbourhood Quality |
72 |
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4.3.5 Traffic Congestion |
72 |
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4.4 Summary |
73 |
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Glossary |
73 |
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Acknowledgements |
74 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
74 |
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Review Questions |
74 |
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Chapter 5 Scenic Beauty: Visual Landscape Assessment and Human Landscape Perception |
75 |
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5.1 Introduction |
76 |
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5.2 Visual Quality Assessment |
76 |
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5.3 Theories Explaining Landscape Preferences as Innate or Learnt |
77 |
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5.4 Measuring and Mapping Scenic Beauty |
80 |
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5.5 Methodological Developments |
81 |
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5.6 Summary |
82 |
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Glossary |
82 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
83 |
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Review Questions |
84 |
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Chapter 6 Health Benefits of Nature |
85 |
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6.1 Introduction |
86 |
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6.2 What Is Health and How Can It Be Measured? |
87 |
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6.3 What Is Nature and How Can It Be Measured? |
87 |
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6.4 Nature and Clinical Health |
88 |
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6.5 Green Space and Public Health |
89 |
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6.6 Mechanisms Linking Nature to Health |
90 |
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6.6.1 Air Quality |
91 |
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6.6.2 Physical Activity |
91 |
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6.6.3 Social Cohesion |
92 |
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6.6.4 Stress Reduction |
92 |
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6.7 Summary |
93 |
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Glossary |
93 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
94 |
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Review Questions |
94 |
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Chapter 7 Restorative Environments |
95 |
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7.1 Introduction |
96 |
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7.2 Restorative Environments Research |
96 |
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7.2.1 Stress Recovery Theory |
97 |
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7.2.2 Attention Restoration Theory |
98 |
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7.3 The Evolutionary Origins of Restorative Nature Experiences |
99 |
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7.4 Recent Theoretical and Empirical Developments |
100 |
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7.4.1 Perceptual Fluency Account |
100 |
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7.4.2 Connectedness to Nature |
100 |
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7.4.3 Micro?Restorative Experiences and Instorative Effects |
102 |
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7.5 Applications and Implications |
102 |
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7.6 Summary |
103 |
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Glossary |
103 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
105 |
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Review Questions |
105 |
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Chapter 8 Ambivalence Towards Nature and Natural Landscapes |
106 |
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8.1 Introduction |
107 |
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8.2 Historical Overview |
107 |
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8.3 Emotional Impacts and Meanings of Natural Environment Experience |
108 |
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8.4 Views of Nature and Landscape Preferences |
109 |
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8.5 The Role of Biodiversity |
110 |
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8.6 An Existential?Motivational Account |
111 |
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8.7 Practical Implications |
112 |
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8.8 Summary |
113 |
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Glossary |
113 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
114 |
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Review Questions |
114 |
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Chapter 9 Human Dimensions of Wildlife |
115 |
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9.1 Introduction |
116 |
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9.2 Early Work: Attitudes Towards Wildlife |
116 |
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9.3 The Cognitive Hierarchy |
117 |
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9.4 Wildlife Value Orientations |
119 |
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9.5 Predicting Norms and Attitudes Towards Wildlife |
121 |
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9.6 Emotions Towards Wildlife |
121 |
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9.7 Summary |
123 |
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Glossary |
123 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
124 |
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Review Questions |
124 |
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Chapter 10 Children and the Natural Environment |
125 |
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10.1 Introduction |
126 |
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10.2 Childhood Experiences with Nature |
126 |
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10.3 Nature and Children’s Health and Well?Being |
128 |
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10.3.1 Physical Health Benefits |
129 |
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10.3.2 Mental Health Benefits |
129 |
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10.3.3 Cognitive Benefits |
130 |
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10.4 Childhood Nature Experiences and Adult Environmentalism |
131 |
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10.5 Applications and Implications |
131 |
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10.6 Summary |
132 |
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Glossary |
132 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
133 |
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Review Questions |
133 |
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Chapter 11 Appraising and Designing Built Environments that Promote Well?Being and Healthy Behaviour |
134 |
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11.1 Introduction |
135 |
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11.2 Aesthetic Appraisals of Architecture |
135 |
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11.2.1 Uniformities in the Appraisal of Built Space |
135 |
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11.2.2 Observer Differences |
137 |
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11.2.3 Meaning in Architecture |
138 |
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11.3 Three BUILDING Design Approaches that Promote Well?Being and Healthy Behaviour |
138 |
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11.3.1 Social Design |
138 |
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11.3.2 Biophilic Design |
140 |
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11.3.3 Evidence?Based Design |
141 |
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11.4 Summary |
141 |
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Glossary |
141 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
142 |
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Review Questions |
142 |
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Chapter 12 Urban Environmental Quality |
143 |
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12.1 Introduction |
144 |
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12.2 Urban Settings as a Source of Stress and Discomfort |
145 |
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12.3 Urban Settings as a Source of Well?Being and Restoration |
146 |
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12.4 Residential Satisfaction – A Multicomponent Concept |
147 |
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12.5 A Multidimensional Approach to Urban Environmental Quality |
147 |
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12.6 The Multi?Place Approach |
150 |
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12.7 Summary |
151 |
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Glossary |
151 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
152 |
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Review Questions |
152 |
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Chapter 13 Environment and Quality of Life |
153 |
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13.1 Introduction |
154 |
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13.2 QoL: Objective and Subjective Measures |
155 |
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13.3 QoL: Unidimensional and Multidimensional Measures |
156 |
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13.4 Environment and QoL: Research Overview |
157 |
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13.4.1 Which QoL Aspects Are Most Important? |
157 |
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13.4.2 To What Extent Is QoL Sustained in Certain Situations? |
159 |
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13.4.3 How Does QoL Differ with Varying Environmental Conditions? |
160 |
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13.4.4 How Do Environmental Transformations Influence QoL? |
161 |
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13.5 Summary |
163 |
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Glossary |
163 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
164 |
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Review Questions |
164 |
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Chapter 14 Place Attachment |
165 |
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14.1 Introduction |
166 |
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14.2 Theories and Models of Place Attachment |
167 |
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14.2.1 Components of Place Attachment |
167 |
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14.2.2 Types of Place Attachments |
168 |
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14.2.3 Place Attachments Involve an Array of Emotions |
168 |
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14.2.4 Place Attachments as Dynamic and Socially Produced |
169 |
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14.3 Applications of Place Attachment |
170 |
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14.4 Summary |
172 |
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Glossary |
172 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
173 |
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Review Questions |
173 |
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Chapter 15 How Cues in the Environment Affect Normative Behaviour |
174 |
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15.1 Introduction |
175 |
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15.2 Overarching Goals and their Relative Strengths |
176 |
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15.3 Environmental Cues that Directly Strengthen the Normative Goal |
178 |
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15.4 Environmental Cues that Directly Weaken the Normative Goal |
179 |
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15.5 Indirect Weakening of the Normative Goal by Environmental Cues that Strengthen the Gain Goal |
180 |
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15.6 Indirect Weakening of the Normative Goal by Environmental Cues that Strengthen the Hedonic Goal |
181 |
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15.7 Summary |
182 |
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Glossary |
182 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
183 |
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Review Questions |
183 |
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Part II Factors Influencing Environmental Behaviour |
185 |
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Chapter 16 Measuring Environmental Behaviour |
187 |
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16.1 Introduction |
188 |
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16.2 What to Measure? Behaviour or Impact |
188 |
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16.2.1 Environmental Behaviour |
188 |
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16.2.2 Environmental Impact |
189 |
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16.3 How to Measure Environmental Behaviour? |
192 |
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16.4 Multidimensional or Unidimensional Measures of Environmental Behaviour |
193 |
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16.4.1 Multidimensional Measures of Environmental Behaviour |
193 |
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16.4.2 A Unidimensional Measure of Environmental Behaviour |
194 |
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16.5 Summary |
195 |
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Glossary |
195 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
196 |
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Review Questions |
196 |
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Chapter 17 Values and Pro?Environmental Behaviour |
197 |
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17.1 Introduction |
198 |
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17.2 Values |
198 |
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17.3 Value Theories |
199 |
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17.3.1 Social Value Orientations |
199 |
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17.3.2 Schwartz’s Value Theory |
199 |
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17.3.3 Four Key Values for Pro?Environmental Behaviour |
201 |
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17.4 How Values Affect Environmental Behaviour |
203 |
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17.5 Related Concepts |
204 |
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17.6 Practical Relevance of Value Research |
206 |
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17.7 Summary |
206 |
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Glossary |
207 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
207 |
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Review Questions |
208 |
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Chapter 18 Social Norms and Pro?Environmental Behaviour |
209 |
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18.1 Introduction |
210 |
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18.2 What Is a Social Norm? |
210 |
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18.3 How Influential Are Norms on Behaviour? |
211 |
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18.4 Why Do People Conform to Norms? |
212 |
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18.5 When Do Norms Influence Behaviour? |
212 |
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18.5.1 Salience |
212 |
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18.5.2 Group Size |
213 |
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18.5.3 Reference Groups |
214 |
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18.5.4 Personal Norms |
214 |
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18.5.5 Norm Conflict and the Importance of Aligned Messages |
215 |
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18.6 Summary |
217 |
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Glossary |
218 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
218 |
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Review Questions |
218 |
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Chapter 19 Emotions and Pro?Environmental Behaviour |
219 |
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19.1 Introduction |
220 |
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19.2 Emotions as a Motive for Action |
221 |
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19.3 Hedonic and Eudaimonic View on Emotions |
222 |
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19.4 Why Pro?Environmental Behaviour Elicits Positive Emotions: A Closer Look at the Eudaimonic View |
224 |
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19.5 Summary |
226 |
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Glossary |
226 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
227 |
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Review Questions |
227 |
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Chapter 20 Symbolic Aspects of Environmental Behaviour |
228 |
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20.1 Introduction |
229 |
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20.2 Identity |
229 |
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20.2.1 Environmental Self?Identity and Behaviour |
230 |
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20.2.2 Factors Influencing Identity |
231 |
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20.3 Impression Management |
233 |
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20.4 Summary |
235 |
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Glossary |
235 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
236 |
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Review Questions |
236 |
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Chapter 21 Social Dilemmas: Motivational, Individual, and Structural Aspects Influencing Cooperation |
237 |
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21.1 Introduction |
238 |
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21.2 Defining Social Dilemmas |
238 |
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21.3 Types of Social Dilemmas |
239 |
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21.3.1 Large?Scale Dilemmas |
239 |
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21.3.2 Resource Dilemmas |
239 |
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21.3.3 Public Good Dilemmas |
240 |
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21.4 Motives in Social Dilemmas |
240 |
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21.4.1 Greed |
240 |
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21.4.2 Efficiency |
241 |
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21.4.3 Fairness |
242 |
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21.5 Factors Promoting Cooperation |
242 |
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21.5.1 Group Size |
243 |
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21.5.2 Communication |
243 |
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21.5.3 Response Efficacy |
243 |
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21.5.4 Environmental Uncertainty |
244 |
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21.5.5 Social Uncertainty |
244 |
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21.5.6 Norms in Large?Scale Dilemmas |
244 |
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21.6 Summary |
245 |
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Glossary |
246 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
246 |
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Review Questions |
246 |
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Chapter 22 Theories to Explain Environmental Behaviour |
247 |
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22.1 Introduction |
248 |
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22.2 Theory of Planned Behaviour |
248 |
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22.3 Protection Motivation Theory |
250 |
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22.4 The Norm Activation Model |
251 |
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22.5 The Value?Belief?Norm Theory of Environmentalism |
253 |
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22.6 Goal?Framing Theory |
254 |
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22.7 Summary |
255 |
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Glossary |
256 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
257 |
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Review Questions |
257 |
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Chapter 23 The Role of Group Processes in Environmental Issues, Attitudes, and Behaviours |
258 |
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23.1 Introduction |
259 |
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23.2 Why Should Environmental Psychologists Be Interested in Group Processes? |
259 |
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23.3 How THE Social Identity Approach Explains Environmental Conflict |
260 |
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23.4 Why Social Identity Guides Environmental Attitudes and Behaviours |
261 |
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23.4.1 Group Norms Guide Environmental Attitudes and Behaviours |
262 |
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23.4.2 Group Members Influence Environmental Attitudes and Behaviours |
263 |
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23.4.3 Group Identification Influences Environmental Attitudes and Behaviours |
264 |
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23.5 Why Social Identity Can Affect Cooperation on Environmental Issues |
264 |
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23.6 How THE Social Identity Approach Explains Environmental Group Formation |
265 |
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23.7 Summary |
266 |
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Glossary |
266 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
267 |
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Review Questions |
267 |
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Chapter 24 Yesterday’s Habits Preventing Change for Tomorrow? About the Influence of Automaticity on Environmental Behaviour |
268 |
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24.1 Introduction |
269 |
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24.2 Theoretical Background: How Habits Are Acquired |
270 |
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24.3 Narrowing Down Decision?Making: How Habits Affect Information Use |
271 |
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24.4 Measuring Habits: A Challenge for Research |
273 |
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24.5 Breaking Bad Habits, Creating Good Habits: Interventions Changing Routine Behaviour |
276 |
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24.6 Summary |
278 |
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Glossary |
278 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
279 |
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Review Questions |
280 |
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Chapter 25 Environmental Psychology in Latin America |
281 |
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25.1 Introduction |
282 |
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25.2 Latin American Background |
282 |
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25.3 Past Reviews on Environmental Psychology in Latin America |
283 |
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25.4 Recent Developments in Environmental Psychology in Latin America |
284 |
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25.5 Key Issues for the Development of Research in Latin America |
286 |
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25.5.1 Lack of Collaboration |
286 |
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25.5.2 Few Possibilities to Publish in Spanish or Portuguese |
287 |
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25.5.3 Academic Training in Environmental Psychology |
287 |
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25.6 Summary |
288 |
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Glossary |
288 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
289 |
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Review Questions |
289 |
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Part III Encouraging Pro?Environmental Behaviour |
291 |
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Chapter 26 Informational Strategies to Promote Pro?Environmental Behaviour: Changing Knowledge, Awareness, and Attitudes |
293 |
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26.1 Introduction |
294 |
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26.2 Interventions: From Research to Implementation |
294 |
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26.3 Informational Strategies |
295 |
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26.3.1 Provision of Information |
295 |
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26.3.2 Goal Setting |
296 |
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26.3.3 Commitment |
297 |
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26.3.4 Prompting |
298 |
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26.3.5 Feedback |
298 |
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26.4 Intervention Research: Some General Issues |
299 |
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26.5 Summary |
300 |
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Glossary |
301 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
301 |
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Review Questions |
302 |
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Chapter 27 Encouraging Pro?Environmental Behaviour with Rewards and Penalties |
303 |
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27.1 Introduction |
304 |
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27.2 Analysis of Consequences |
304 |
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27.3 Natural Versus Extra Consequences |
306 |
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27.4 When Is It Appropriate to Apply Extra Consequences? |
307 |
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27.5 How Should Extra Consequences Be Announced and Delivered? |
308 |
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27.5.1 Negative Versus Positive Consequences |
309 |
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27.5.2 Monetary Versus Non?Monetary Consequences |
309 |
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27.6 Summary |
311 |
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Glossary |
311 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
312 |
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Review Questions |
312 |
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Chapter 28 Persuasive Technology to Promote Pro?Environmental Behaviour |
313 |
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28.1 Introduction |
314 |
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28.2 Technology and Behaviour |
314 |
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28.3 Persuasive Technology |
315 |
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28.4 Approaches to Applying Persuasive Technology |
316 |
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28.5 Social Influence through Smart Systems |
317 |
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28.5.1 The Role of Social Cues |
317 |
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28.5.2 Reactance |
318 |
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28.6 Providing Persuasive Experiences |
319 |
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28.7 Persuasive Technology as a Tool to Promote Behaviour Change |
319 |
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28.7.1 Ambient Persuasion |
320 |
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28.7.2 Group Interventions |
321 |
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28.8 Summary |
322 |
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Glossary |
323 |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
323 |
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Review Questions |
324 |
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Chapter 29 Acceptability of Environmental Policies |
325 |
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29.1 Introduction |
326 |
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29.2 Acceptability as a Social Dilemma |
326 |
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29.3 Theoretical Framework to Explain the Acceptability of Policy Measures |
327 |
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29.3.1 Individual Policy Outcomes |
328 |
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29.3.2 Collective Policy Outcomes |
328 |
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29.3.3 Fair Distribution of Policy Outcomes |
330 |
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29.4 Procedural Fairness and Acceptability of Environmental Policies |
332 |
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29.5 How Can Public Support Increase Over Time? An Illustration |
333 |
|
|
29.6 Summary |
335 |
|
|
Glossary |
335 |
|
|
Suggestions for Further Reading |
336 |
|
|
Review Questions |
336 |
|
|
Chapter 30 Processes of Change |
337 |
|
|
30.1 Introduction |
338 |
|
|
30.2 Lewin’s Theory of Change |
338 |
|
|
30.3 Behavioural Change: A Self?Regulation Process Steered by Feedback Loops |
339 |
|
|
30.3.1 Goals as Reference Values in a Feedback Loop |
339 |
|
|
30.3.2 Hierarchical Organization of Goals and Feedback Loops |
339 |
|
|
30.3.3 The Importance of Self?Focus |
341 |
|
|
30.4 Behavioural Change: It Takes Time to Overcome Resistance to Change |
341 |
|
|
30.5 The Stage Model of Self?Regulated Behavioural Change |
342 |
|
|
30.6 Implications for Interventions |
344 |
|
|
30.7 Empirical Validation of the SSBC |
345 |
|
|
30.8 Summary |
346 |
|
|
Glossary |
347 |
|
|
Suggestions for Further Reading |
348 |
|
|
Review Questions |
348 |
|
|
Chapter 31 Simulating Social Environmental Systems |
349 |
|
|
31.1 Introduction |
350 |
|
|
31.2 An Introduction to Social Complexity |
350 |
|
|
31.3 Social Simulation as a Methodology |
351 |
|
|
31.4 Social Simulation of Environmental Behaviour |
352 |
|
|
31.4.1 Using Theory in Simulation Models: Formalizing Processes of Attitude Change |
352 |
|
|
31.4.2 Using Theory and Data in Models: Diffusion of Environmental Innovations |
353 |
|
|
31.5 Integrating Social Simulation into Environmental Modelling |
354 |
|
|
31.5.1 The Lakeland Study |
354 |
|
|
31.5.2 Companion Modelling: A Study of Rice Production and Labour Migrations in North?East Thailand |
355 |
|
|
31.5.3 Integrating Multiple Models of a Socioenvironmental System: Water Use in the Danube Basin |
356 |
|
|
31.6 Key Steps in Building Agent?Based Models |
357 |
|
|
31.6.1 Development of Models |
357 |
|
|
31.6.2 Using Models |
357 |
|
|
31.7 Summary |
358 |
|
|
Glossary |
358 |
|
|
Suggestions for Further Reading |
359 |
|
|
Review Questions |
359 |
|
|
Chapter 32 Environmental Issues in Low? and Middle?Income Countries |
360 |
|
|
32.1 Introduction |
361 |
|
|
32.2 Environmental Risk Perception, Environmental Concern, and Climate Change Perception |
361 |
|
|
32.2.1 Environmental Risk Perception |
361 |
|
|
32.2.2 Environmental Concern |
362 |
|
|
32.2.3 Climate Change Perception |
362 |
|
|
32.3 Residential Environment and Well?Being |
363 |
|
|
32.3.1 Slums and Public Housing |
363 |
|
|
32.3.2 Communal Spaces |
364 |
|
|
32.3.3 Rural Communities |
364 |
|
|
32.4 Behaviour and Behaviour Change |
364 |
|
|
32.4.1 Resource Conservation |
365 |
|
|
32.4.2 Sustainable Transportation |
365 |
|
|
32.4.3 Recycling |
365 |
|
|
32.4.4 Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene |
367 |
|
|
32.5 Summary |
368 |
|
|
Glossary |
369 |
|
|
Suggestions for Further Reading |
369 |
|
|
Review Questions |
370 |
|
|
Chapter 33 Conclusion: Summary, Trends, and Future Perspectives in Environmental Psychology |
371 |
|
|
33.1 Summary and Key Findings |
372 |
|
|
33.1.1 Part I: Environmental Influences on Human Behaviour and Well?Being |
372 |
|
|
33.1.2 Part II: Factors Influencing Environmental Behaviour |
373 |
|
|
33.1.3 Part III: Encouraging Pro?Environmental Behaviour |
374 |
|
|
33.2 General Trends and Developments |
375 |
|
|
33.2.1 Positive Interactions Between Humans and Environments |
375 |
|
|
33.2.2 Integrative Approaches |
376 |
|
|
33.2.3 From One Psychology to Multiple Psychologies |
376 |
|
|
33.3 Challenges for Future Research |
377 |
|
|
33.3.1 Further Integration |
378 |
|
|
33.3.2 Further Development of Theories and Methods |
379 |
|
|
33.3.3 Further Engagement |
379 |
|
|
Glossary |
381 |
|
|
Suggestions for Further Reading |
381 |
|
|
Review Questions |
381 |
|
|
References |
382 |
|
|
Index |
437 |
|
|
EULA |
449 |
|